Capture, purification, and release of biological substances using a surface coating

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to a surface coating for capture circulating rare cells, comprising a nonfouling composition to prevent the binding of non-specific cells and adsorption of serum components; a bioactive composition for binding the biological substance, such as circulating tumor cells; with or without a linker composition that binds the nonfouling and bioactive compositions. The invention also provide a surface coating for capture and purification of a biological substance, comprising a releasable composition to release the non-specific cells and other serum components; a bioactive composition for binding the biological substance, such as circulating tumor cells; with or without a linker composition that binds the releasable and bioactive compositions. The present invention also discloses a novel microfluidic chip, with specific patterned microstructures to create a flow disturbance and increase the capture rate of the biological substance.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a nonprovisional application of a U.S. PatentApplication Ser. No. 61/502,844, filed on 29 Jun. 2011, and U.S. PatentApplication Ser. No. 61/606,220, filed on 2 Mar. 2012, which areincorporated by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSOREDRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Not Applicable

REFERENCE TO A “SEQUENCE LISTING,” A TABLE, OR A COMPUTER PROGRAMLISTING APPENDIX SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISK

Table 1 is the amino acid sequence of EpAb4-1 antibody.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The shedding of cells into the circulation is an intrinsic property ofthe malignant tumor, and this feature provides important informationwith regard to the diagnosis, staging, treatment response and survivalof cancer patients. For example, Pantel et al found the number ofcirculating tumor cells (CTCs) in the blood is correlated with theaggressiveness of the cancer as well as the efficacy of the therapy.(Pantel, K. et. al., “Detection, clinical relevance and specificbiological properties of disseminating tumor cells”, Nat Rev Cancer.2008, 8(5):329-40).

However, CTCs, as few as one per 109 blood cells in patients withmetastatic cancer, are rare cells. This makes the detection andisolation of CTCs technically challenging (see Kahn et al. Breast CancerRes Treat 2004, 86:237-47). An enrichment process is therefore necessaryto effectively detect and isolate CTCs.

An example of such enrichment process is the use of a highlyoverexpressed cell surface biomarker with high specificity andsensitivity for CTCs, such as the epithelial cell adhesion molecule(EpCAM). The Cellsearch Systet™ (Veridex), the only FDA-approvedplatform for CTC detection, utilizes anti-EpCAM antibody-coated magneticnanoparticles to capture and enrich CTCs, followed by cytokeratinimmunostaining. The AdnaTest (AdnaGen AG, Germany), another commerciallyavailable system for CTC detection, adopts similar immunomagneticapproach by using anti-EpCAM and Mucin 1 (MUC) conjugated magneticbeads. More recently, “CTC chips” based on anti-EpCAM antibody-coatedmicrofluidics chip were developed for CTC detection and enrichment(Nagrath et al, Nature 2007, 450:1235-9). However, the disadvantage ofthe above techniques is the low detection rate of pure CTCs, due to thenon-specific binding of blood cells with anti-EpCAM antibody.

In order to maximize the detection and isolation of CTCs, it isnecessary to reduce the nonspecific binding of other circulating bloodcells. This can be achieved by surface modification with bioinertmaterials. For example. Kaladhar et al. observed a significant fewercirculating blood cells (e.g. platelets, leukocytes, and erythrocytes)binding onto the solid substrate modified with supported monolayer ofvarious lipid compositions containing phosphatidyl-choline, cholesterol,and glycolipid (Kaladhar et al, Langmuir 2004, 20: 11115-22 and Kaladharet al, J Biomed Mater Res A 2006, 79A:23-35).

Despite the advance in the detection and isolation CTCs technology,there is still a need for a more specific and effective method fordetecting, purification and releasing CTCs and other biologicalsubstances for further cultivation and characterization.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention is directed to a surface coating tocapture a circulating rare cell (CRC). This surface coating increasesthe capture efficiency of a CRC, such as CTC, circulating stem cells(e.g. tumor stem cell and bone marrow stem cells), fetal cells,bacteria, virus, epithelial cells, endothelial cells or the like andreduces the binding of non-specific cells or protein adsorption.

The surface coating comprises 1) a nonfouling composition that reducesthe binding of nonspecific blood cells and adsorption of other bloodcomponents, such as protein; and 2) a bioactive composition thatcaptures a CRC. The surface coating further comprises a linkercomposition that attaches to the nonfouling composition and thebioactive composition, as illustrated in FIG. 1A.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a surfacecoating to capture and release a biological substance. This surfacecoating increases the capture efficiency of a biological substance, suchas CTC, circulating stem cells (e.g. tumor stem cell, liver stem cellsand bone marrow stem cells), fetal cells, bacteria, virus, epithelialcells, endothelial cells or the like and enhances the removal or releaseof the non-specific cells or protein from the surface coating.

The surface coating comprises 1) a releasable composition for releasingor removing nonspecific blood cells and other blood components, such asprotein, from the surface coating; and 2) a bioactive composition thatcaptures a biological substance. The surface coating further comprises alinker composition that attaches to the releasable composition and thebioactive composition.

The present invention is also directed to a microfluidic device, withspecific microstructure designs to create a disturbed flow of blood,body fluid or biological samples to increase the capture rate of thebiological substance.

The present invention is also directed to a method of manufacturing thesurface coating, comprising a) forming the nonfouling or the releasablecomposition; and b) attaching the the linker composition with thenonfouling/releasable composition from step a) and the bioactivecomposition, or c) attaching the nonfouling/releasable composition fromstep a) with the bioactive composition.

The present invention is also directed to methods to capture and releasethe biological substance from the surface coating. The biologicalsubstance on the surface coating can be purified by removing thenon-specific cells or protein. The captured biological substance can bereleased by air bubbles, ultraviolet irradiation and the like.

The present invention is also directed to uses of a biotinylatedanti-EpCam antibody, EpAb4-1 antibody, to capture a CTC.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the present invention may be described with reference tothe accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1A illustrates schematically an embodiment of the surface coatingcomprising a nonfouling composition, a linker composition and abioactive composition.

FIG. 1B illustrates schematically the binding of a circulating tumorcell with the surface coating from FIG. 1A

FIG. 2A to FIG. 2F illustrate the chemical structures of examples ofnonfouling materials.

FIG. 3 illustrates the chemical reactions of conjugation between thefunctional groups on the nonfouling composition and the bioactivecomposition.

FIG. 4A illustrates schematically the attachment of the surface coatingand the solid substrate without a surface linker.

FIG. 4B and FIG. 4C illustrate schematically a linker composition with acleavable functional group.

FIG. 4D illustrates schematically the attachment of the surface coatingand the solid substrate using a surface linker.

FIG. 5A and FIG. 5B illustrates schematically the formation of thesurface coating on a solid substrate.

FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate schematically the components of amicrofluidic chip.

FIG. 6C illustrates schematically the microfluidic chip assembly tocapture CTCs from a biological sample.

FIG. 7A to FIG. 7H illustrate schematically the designs of themicrostructures on the solid substrate.

FIGS. 7I and 7J illustrate the capture efficiency of variousmicrostructure designs in DMEM solution and blood respectively.

FIG. 8 illustrates the shear stresses of a buffer solution to releasethe non-specific cells and purify the captured biological substance.

FIG. 9. illustrates schematically the release of biological substance bythe air bubble method.

FIG. 10A illustrates schematically the surface coating with a cleavablelinker composition on a solid substrate.

FIG. 10B illustrates schematically the release of the biologic substancefrom the surface coating in FIG. 10A.

FIG. 11 illustrates QCM-D response of the surface coating construction.

FIG. 12 illustrates the QCM-D response of the addition of bovine serumalbumin to the surface coating.

FIG. 13 are the photographs of the non-specific cells (top images) andthe CTCs (bottom images) on the surface coating before and after thebuffer rinse.

FIG. 14A illustrates the capture efficiency and non-specific blood cellbinding of various surface coatings.

FIG. 14B are photo images which illustrate the non-specific blood cellbinding of various surface coatings before and after the buffer rinse.

FIG. 15A to FIG. 15C are the photographs of the non-specific cells andthe biological substance on the surface coating before and after thebuffer rinse purification.

FIG. 16 illustrates the various shear stress and flushing time for theremoval of HCT116 and NIH-3T3 cell populations from the surface coating.

FIG. 17 are the photographs of the CTCs released by the air bubbles.

FIG. 18 illustrates the cell cultures of the released CTCs on day 1, day10 and day 14.

FIG. 19 illustrates schematically a CTC filtration device.

FIG. 20 illustrates the CTC binding specificity of biotinylated OC9801antibody, biotinylated EpAb4-1 antibody, biotinylated EpCam antibody andIgG antibody.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a surface coating to effectivelycapture a circulating rare cell (CRC), such as CTC, circulating stemcells (e.g. tumor stem cell and bone marrow stem cells), fetal cells,bacteria, virus, epithelial cells, endothelial cells or the like.

In one embodiment, the surface coating for the capture of a CRCcomprises 1) a nonfouling composition that prevents the binding ofnon-specific cells and adsorption of other blood components, such asprotein; and 2) a bioactive composition that captures the circulatingrare cells. The nonfouling composition and the bioactive composition arejoined by discrete functional groups or moieties present in thenonfouling and bioactive compositions. Generally, a linkage between thetwo compositions is formed by an interaction comprising electrostaticinteraction, hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction, polar-polarinteraction, complementary DNA binding, magnetic force, or combinationsthereof.

In one group of embodiments, complementary DNA fragments are used forbinding the nonfouling composition and the bioactive composition. Thefragments are attached to each of the compositions and can be partiallyor completely complementary over their lengths. A suitable length of DNAwill generally be at least 15, 20, 25, 35, 50, 100 or more bases inlength. An example of the DNA used in the present invention is an DNAtweezer. (See, B Yurke et al., A DNA-fueled molecular machine made ofDNA. Nature 2000, 406:605-608.)

In another group of embodiments, the surface coating comprises 1) anonfouling composition; 2) a bioactive composition; and 3) a linkercomposition, which joins the nonfouling composition to the bioactivecomposition. Sec FIG. 1A.

The present invention is also directed to a surface coating toeffectively capture a biological substance, such as CTC, circulatingstem cells (e.g. tumor stem cell, liver stem cells and bone marrow stemcells), fetal cells, bacteria, virus, epithelial cells, endothelialcells or the like, purify the biological substance on the surface of thesurface coating by releasing or removing the non-specific cells andother serum components (e.g. protein) through a buffer rinse, andrelease the captured biological substance from the surface coating.

The surface coating for the capture and purification of a biologicalsubstance comprises 1) a releasable composition for releasingnonspecific blood cells and other blood components, such as protein,through a buffer rinse; and 2) a bioactive composition that captures abiological substance. The releasable composition and the bioactivecomposition are joined by discrete functional groups or moieties presentin the releasable and bioactive compositions. Generally, a linkagebetween the two compositions is formed by an interaction comprisingelectrostatic interaction, hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction,polar-polar interaction, complementary DNA binding, magnetic force, orcombinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the surface coating further comprises a linkercomposition that attaches to the releasable composition and thebioactive composition.

As will be explained in more detail below, the surface coating can beincorporated into the following configurations: cell cultural dishes,microfluidic channels, microfluidic chips, filtration filter,capillaries, tubes, beads, nanoparticles, or the like, with an innerdiameter ranging from about 50 to about 1000 um.

Nonfouling and Releasable Composition

The “nonfouling” composition (see FIG. 1A) reduces the binding ofnon-specific cells and adsorption of the serum protein.

The “releasable” composition comprises a nonfouling composition whichalso acts as a “lubricating” surface such that only low flow shearstress is required to remove or release the non-specific cells or bloodcomponents from the surface coating, while the biological substanceremains intact.

The nonfouling composition is selected from the group consisting of: asupported lipid layer such as liposomes, supported lipid bilayers (SLBs)or lipid multilayer, polypeptides, polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs),polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol (PEG) as illustrated in FIG. 2A,hydrogel polymers, extracellular matrix proteins, carbohydrate, polymerbrushes, zwitterionic materials such as poly(carboxybetaine) (pCB)) asillustrated in FIG. 2D, poly(sulfobetaine)(pSB) as illustrated in FIG.2E and pDMAEMA as illustrated in FIG. 2F, small organic compounds, andthe combination of above materials forming a single or a multi-layer.

For those embodiments in which the nonfouling composition comprisessupported lipid bilayers (SLBs), the SLBs typically comprise lipids suchas, for example, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(capbiotinyl) (sodium salt) (b-PE) as illustrated in FIG. 2B and1-Palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC). The proteinresistant property of a SLB can be explained by the presence of neutraland zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine headgroups in a wide pH range, aswell as an aqueous thin film formed between the hydrophilic lipid headgroups and the bulk solution (see. Johnson et al., Biophys J 1991,59:289-94).

In another group of embodiments, the nonfouling composition comprisesPEG, preferably PEG with a molecular weight from about 100 to about100,000 and exhibits a nonfouling property.

In yet another group of embodiments, the nonfouling compositioncomprises polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) or a polymer brush.Examples of suitable PEMs useful in the present invention include, butare not limited to, poly-L-lysine/poly-L-glutamic acid (PLL/PLGA),poly-L-lysine/poly-L-aspartic acid or similar counter ionicpolyelectrolytes. The polymer brush comprises ([2-(acryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethyl ammonium chloride, TMA)/(2-carboxy ethyl acrylate, CAA)copolymer as illustrated in FIG. 2C. Generally, the nonfouling layer hasa thickness from a few nanometers up to hundreds microns.

The nonfouling composition comprises functional groups capable ofcovalent, non-covalent, or a combination of covalent and non-covalentattachment, either directly to a functional group present in thebioactive composition, or directly to a functional group that is part ofthe linkage composition.

In some embodiments, the functional groups of the nonfouling composition(prior to covalent attachment) are selected from: hydroxy groups, aminegroups, carboxylic acid or ester groups, thioester groups, aldehydegroups, epoxy or oxirane groups, hyrdrazine groups and thiol groups,which are selected to be reactive with functional groups present ineither the linker or bioactive composition. In other embodiments, thefunctional groups of the nonfouling composition (prior to non-covalentattachment) which are first members of a binding pair, are selected fromthe group using specific binding recognition consisting of biotin,avidin, streptavidin, DNA, RNA, ligand, receptor, antigen, antibody andpositive-negative charges, each of which is selected to bind to a secondmember of the binding pair which is present in either the linker orbioactive composition.

The Linker Composition

The linker composition joins the nonfouling/releasable composition andthe bioactive composition and comprises functional groups capable ofcovalent, non-covalent, or a combination of covalent and non-covalentattachment directly to a functional group present in thenonfouling/releasable composition and to a functional group that is partof the bioactive composition.

In some embodiments, the linker composition comprises functional groups(prior to covalent attachment) selected from: hydroxy groups, aminegroups, carboxylic acid or ester groups, thioester groups, aldehydegroups, epoxy or oxirane groups, hyrdrazine groups and thiol groups,which are selected to be reactive with functional groups present ineither the nonfouling or bioactive composition.

In other embodiments, the linker composition comprises functional groups(prior to non-covalent attachment) which are first members of a bindingpair, selected from the group using specific binding recognitionconsisting of biotin, avidin, streptavidin, DNA, RNA, ligand, receptor,antigen, antibody and positive-negative charges, each of which isselected to bind to a second member of the binding pair which is presenton the nonfouling/releasable composition or the bioactive composition.

The functional groups on the linker composition can also be a cleavablefunctional group, selected from: a photosensitive functional groupcleavable by ultraviolet irradiation, an electrosensitive functionalgroup cleavable by electro pulse mechanism, a magnetic materialcleavable by the absence of the magnetic force, a polyelectrolytematerial cleavable by breaking the electrostatic interaction, a DNAcleavable by hybridization, and the like.

Bioactive Composition

The bioactive composition joins to either the linker composition or thenonfouling composition, and comprises a binding moiety selective for thedetection of the biological substance or CRC.

The bioactive composition comprises functional groups capable ofcovalent, non-covalent, or a combination of covalent and non-covalentattachment directly to a functional group present in the nonfoulinglayer or to a functional group that is part of the linker composition.

In some embodiments, the functional groups of the bioactive composition(prior to covalent attachment) are selected from: hydroxy groups, aminegroups, carboxylic acid or ester groups, thioester groups, aldehydegroups, epoxy or oxirane groups, hyrdrazine groups and thiol groupswhich are selected to be reactive with functional groups present ineither the nonfouling or linker composition. In other embodiments, thefunctional groups of the bioactive composition (prior to non-covalentattachment) are selected from the group using specific bindingrecognition consisting of biotin, avidin, streptavidin, DNA, RNA,ligand, receptor, antigen-antibody and positive-negative charges, eachof which is selected to bind to a second member of the binding pairwhich is present on the nonfouling/releasable composition or the linkercomposition.

The binding moiety of the bioactive composition has specific affinitywith the biological substance through molecular recognition, chemicalaffinity, or geometrical/shape recognition. Examples of the bindingmoiety for the detection of the biological substance include, but arenot limited to: synthetic polymers, molecular imprinted polymers,extracellular matrix proteins, binding receptors, antibodies, DNA, RNA,antigens or any other surface markers which present high affinity to thebiological substance. A preferred antibody is the anti-EpCAM membraneprotein antibody (commercially available from many sources, includingR&D Systems, MN, USA), which provides high specificity for CTCs becauseEpCAM is frequently overexpressed in the lung, colorectal, breast,prostate, head and neck and hepatic malignancies, but is absent fromhaematologic cells. Another preferred antibody is Anti-HER2, which hashigh specificity for CTCs but absent in haematologic cells.

In one embodiment, the anti-EpCAM membrane protein antibody is EpAb4-1antibody, comprising a heavy chain sequence with SEQ ID No:1 and alightchain sequence with SEQ ID NO: 2 shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1Amino Acid Sequence of V_(H) and V_(L) domains of EpAb4-1 antibody FW1CDR1 FW2 CDR2 SEQ ID QIQLVQSGPELKKPGETV GYTFTNYG WVKQAPGKGLK INTYTGEPNO: 1 KISCKAS MN WMGW (V_(H)) SEQ ID DIVMTQAAFSNPVTLGTS RSSKSLLHWYLQKPGQSPQ HMSNLAS NO: 2 ASISC SNGITYLY LLIY (V_(L)) FW3 CDR3 FW4Family SEQ ID TYGDDFKGRFAFSLETSA FGRSVDF WGQGTSVTVSS V_(H)9 NO: 1STAYLQINNLKNEDTATY (V_(H)) FCAR SEQ ID GVPDRFSSSGSGTDFTLRI AQNLENPRFGGGTKLEIK V_(K)24/25 NO: 2 SRVEAEDVGIYYC T (V_(L))Complementary-determining regions 1-3 (CDR1-3), framework regions 1-4(FW1-4) for both the V_(H) and V_(L) domains are shown. The V domainfamilies were aligned by VBASE2 database (www.vbase2.org).

The bioactive composition can have a variety of thicknesses, selected sothat it does not affect the function or the performance of the surfacecoating.

In one embodiment, the conjugation linkers or catalysts for thenonfouling composition and the bioactive compositions are biotin/avidinor their derivatives. In another embodiment, the conjugation linkers orcatalysts for the nonfouling composition and the bioactive compositionare EDC/NHS. In yet another preferred embodiment, the conjugation linkeror catalysts for the nonfouling composition and the bioactivecompositions are sulfo-SMCC. FIG. 3 schematically illustrates thechemical reactions of these embodiments.

Solid Substrate

In some embodiments, the surface coating is attached to the solidsubstrate without a surface linker, as illustrated in FIG. 4A. Thenonfouling/releasable composition is attached to the solid substrate viaone of the following interactions: covalent bonding (for PEG nonfoulingcomposition), hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interaction,hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction (for SLB nonfouling/releasablecomposition), polar-polar interaction, complimentary DNA binding,magnetic force, or the like.

In other embodiments, the surface coating is attached to the solidsubstrate with a surface linker, as illustrated in FIG. 4D. Examples ofthe solid substrate used in the present invention include, but are notlimited to: metals, plastics, glass, silicon wafers, hydroxylatedpoly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and a combination thereof. The shapeof the solid substrate include, but are not limited to: planar, circularand irregular shapes with micro, or nano-structures such asnanoparticles, nanowires, and a combination thereof.

The surface linker composition comprises functional groups capable ofcovalent, non-covalent, or a combination of covalent and non-covalentattachment directly to a functional group present in thenonfouling/releasable composition and to a functional group that is partof the solid substrate. Examples of the surface linker for binding thesurface coating to a glass substrate include, but are not limited to,silane, aminopropyltriethoxy silane, aminopropyltrimethoxy silane,silane-PEG-NH₂, silane-PEG-N₃ (PEG molecular weight is about 1,000 toabout 30,000 daltons) and silane-PEG biotin.

In one group of embodiments, the surface linker comprises a cleavablefunctional group selected from: a photosensitive functional groupcleavable by ultraviolet irradiation, an electrosensitive functionalgroup cleavable by electro-pulse mechanism, an iron or magnetic materialin which the absence of the magnetic force will release the nonfoulingcomposition, a polyelectrolyte material cleavable by breaking theelectrostatic interaction, an DNA cleavable by hybridization, and thelike.

In one embodiment, the nonfouling composition comprisessilane-functionalized PEG and the solid substrate is preferably selectedfrom the group consisting of silicon, glass, hydroxylated poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA), aluminum oxide, TiO₂ and the like. In anotherembodiment, the nonfouling composition comprises thiol-functionalizedcompounds and the solid substrate is preferably selected from the groupconsisting of Au, Ag, Pt, and the like.

The Method of Manufacturing the Surface Coating

FIGS. 5A and 5B show the steps of forming the surface coating:

1. Formation of the nonfouling/releasable composition (e.g. SLB or PEG)with appropriate functional group (biotin);2. Attaching the functional group (streptavidin) on the linkercomposition to the functional group (biotin) on thenonfouling/releasable composition;3. Formation of the bioactive composition and attaching the functionalgroup (biotin) on the bioactive composition to the functional group(streptavidin) on the linker composition.

The surface coating without a linker composition can be formed by:

1. Formation of the nonfouling/releasable composition with appropriatefunctional group (e.g. carboxyl group of N-glutarylphosphatidylethanolamine or NGPE);2. Formation and attaching the functional group (primary amine) on thebioactive composition to the functional group (carboxyl group of NOPE)on the nonfouling/releasable composition in step 1.

The steps in paragraphs [0077] and [0078] can be revered.

Microfluldic Chip

As illustrated in FIG. 6A, the microfluidic chip comprises a first solidsubstrate 1 (e.g. PMMA) and a second solid substrate 2 (e.g. glass),wherein the first and second solid substrates are adhered together usingan adhesive means 3 or other means.

Referring to FIG. 6B, the surface of one or both solid substrates can beengraved with microstructures 4. In one group of embodiments, themicrostructures 4 are arranged in a linear fashion. In another group ofembodiments, the microstructures 4 are arranged in herringbone fashion.The shaded region on the adhesive 3 in FIG. 6B is carved out toaccommodate the microstructures 4 on the surface of the solid substrate1. A sealed channel 5 is created by adhering the first solid substrate 1and the second solid substrate 2 together with an adhesive 3. The heightof the channel 5 is determined by the thickness of the adhesive 3.

Once the microfluidic chip is formed, the surface coating can beattached to one or both solid substrates. In one group of embodiments,the surface coating is attached to the solid substrate with a surfacelinker. In another group of embodiments, the surface coating is attachedto the solid substrate via one of the following interactions: covalentbonding (for PEG nonfouling composition), hydrogen bonding,electrostatic interaction, hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction (for SLBnonfouling/releasable composition), polar-polar interaction,complimentary DNA binding, magnetic force, or the like.

Referring to FIG. 6C, the microstructures 4 on the solid substrate areperpendicular to the flow direction and create a chaotic or disturbedflow of the blood, body fluid or biologic sample as it passes throughthe sealed channel 5 of the microfluidic chip. The disturbed flowenhances the biological substance-surface coating contact.

Two factors govern the capture efficiency of the microfluidic chip:

(1) The linear speed of the blood, body fluid or biological sample,which determines the contact time of the biological substance and thesurface coating. In a preferred embodiment, the linear speed is about0.1 mm/s to 1 mm/s. In a more preferred embodiment, the linear speed isabout 0.42 mm/s or 0.5 ml/h for Design E in FIG. 7F.(2) The flow disturbance of the blood, body fluid or biological sample,created by the microstructures 4 on the solid substrate(s). The flowdisturbance increases contact between the biological substance and thesurface coating.

FIG. 7A shows various designs of the microstructures 4 on the solidsubstrate. The microstructures in Design F are arranged in a herringbonepattern whereas the microstructures in Designs A-E and H are arranged ina linear pattern. The dimensions of the microstructures 4 are asfollows: the length is about 50 mm for O-D and G and about 120 mm forE-F, the height is about 30 μm, the width is about 1.5 mm for O and Aabout 3.0 mm for B, and about 5.5 mm for C-G. The height of the sealedchannel 5 varies with the thickness of the adhesive 3, preferably about30-90 μm, more preferably about 60 μm.

FIG. 7B-7H show the details of Designs A-G in FIG. 7A. Design G in FIG.7H is the preferred pattern, with the following dimensions: the width ofMicrostructure (W) is about 150 μm, the length of microstructure (L) isabout 1000 μm, the distance between two rows of microstructures (Sr) isabout 250 μm, the distance between two adjacent microstructures (Sc) isabout 350 μm, the height of the microstructure (D) is about 30 μm andthe height of the sealed channel 5 (H) is about 60 μm.

The biological substance capture efficiency of the various designs areshown in FIG. 7I and FIG. 7J. Capture rate is defined as (capturedbiological substance/original biological substance in the testingsample)×100%. Channel O has no microstructure and has the lowestbiological substance capture rate, at 27% and 1% for DMEM sample andblood sample, respectively. Design E has a 80% capture rate for HCT116cancer cells spiked in DMEM, and a 30% capture rate for HCT116 cancercells spiked in blood sample. Design F has the best capture rate, onaverage over 70% of HCT116 cancer cells spiked in blood sample werecaptured (see FIG. 7J).

Flow Purification

The biological substance on the surface coating can be further purifiedby removing the non-specific cells and other blood components on thesurface of the nonfouling/releasable composition. Thenonfouling/releasable composition has low affinity for non-specificcells and other blood components. Therefore, rinsing the surface coatingwith a low flow buffer solution of about 0.8 dyne/cm² to about 50dyne/cm² is sufficient to remove non-specific cells and other bloodcomponents on the nonfouling/releasable composition while the biologicalsubstance remains on the surface coating.

In a preferred embodiment, the shear force of the buffer rinse is about2.5 to about 10 dyne/cm². FIG. 8 shows that when the shear stress of thebuffer flow is about 3.3 dyne/cm², 80% of the non-specific cells (i.e.white blood cells) were removed while none of the biological substance(i.e. HCT 116 cancer cells) were removed from the surface coating. Whenthe shear stress of the buffer flow was increased to 8 dyne/cm², almostall of the non-specific cells were removed while none of the biologicalsubstance was removed from the surface coating.

Release of the Biological Substance

After removing the majority of the non-specific cells and bloodcomponents by flow purification, the biological substance can bereleased from the surface coating.

If the nonfouling/releasable composition comprises a lipid or a mixtureof lipid, the captured biological substance can be released byintroducing an air bubble solution or oil phase. As shown in FIG. 9, thesurface coating comprises a nonfouling composition A (lipid bilayer) anda bioactive composition B (antibody) and is bound to a solid substrateS. The biological substance, CTC, is bound to the bioactive compositionB, whereas other cells were repelled by the nonfouling composition A. Asthe air bubble approaches the lipid bilayer, the hydrophobic tails ofthe lipid bilayer are turned upside down due to its high affinity withthe air inside the air bubble, which is also hydrophobic. This breaks upthe hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction at the surface of the lipidbilayer and allows the air bubble to “lift off” the top layer of thelipid bilayer, together with the CTC bound on the bioactive composition.

If the nonfouling composition comprises a composition other than a lipidor a mixture of lipid, the captured biological substance can be releasedby breaking the cleavable functional group on the linker composition oron the surface linker. This release mechanism is illustrated in FIGS.10A and 10B. FIG. 10A shows a surface coating on a solid substrate,wherein the surface coating comprises a bioactive composition B, alinker composition with a cleavable functional group C, and a nonfoulingcomposition A. The surface coating is attached to a solid substrate S(e.g. glass) by a surface linker 1. FIG. 10B shows the release of thebiologic substance (e.g. CTC) from the surface coating in FIG. 10A. Thebiologic substance is bound to the bioactive composition B, whereasother cells were repelled by the nonfouling composition A. The surfacecoating is irradiated with 365 nm ultraviolet light, which breaks thecleavable functional group on the linker composition C and the biologicsubstance is released for subsequent analysis but maintaining theviability.

The biological substance can also be released by other mechanisms. Inone group of embodiments, the linker composition or the surface linkercomprises an electrosensitive cleavable functional group, and thebiological substance is released by electro pulse mechanism. In anothergroup of embodiments, the linker composition or the surface linkercomprises a magnetic material as the cleavable functional group, and theabsence of the magnetic field or force releases the biologicalsubstance. In yet another group of embodiments, the linker compositionor the surface linker comprises a PEM as the cleavable functional group,and the biological substance is released by changing the electrostaticinteraction between the layers. In yet another group of embodiments, thelinker composition or the surface linker comprises an DNA piece as thecleavable functional group, and the biological substance is released byDNA hybridization.

EXAMPLES

The following examples further illustrate the present invention. Theseexamples are intended merely to be illustrative of the present inventionand are not to be construed as being limiting.

Example 1: Preparation of the Two-Laver Surface Coating Preparation ofthe Nonfouling Composition:

Supported lipid bilayer (SLB) was prepared by the following steps:

(1) POPC and b-PE (commercially available from Avanti Polar Lipids, USA)were dissolved in chloroform and the final lipid concentration was 5mg/mL. The POPC/b-PE solution was vortex dried under a slow stream ofnitrogen to form a thin, uniform POPC/b-PE film. The POPC/b-PE film wasfurther dried in a vacuum chamber overnight to remove residualchloroform.(2) The POPC/biotin-PE film in step (1) was dispersed in and mixed witha phosphate buffer containing 10 mM of phosphate buffered saline, 150 mMof sodium chloride aqueous solution, and 0.02% (w/v) of sodium azide(NaN₃, commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich, USA), with the pHadjusted to 7.2. The mixed solution was filtered through the 100-nm,followed by the 50-nm Nuclepore® track-etched polycarbonate membranes(Whatman Schleicher & Schuell, Germany) at least 10 times under 150 psiat room temp.(3) The filtered solution in step (2) was passed through the LIPEX™Extruder (Northern Lipids, Inc. Canada) to generate a homogenouspopulation of unilamillar vesicles. The size of the POPC/biotin-PEvesicles was about 65±3 nm, determined by the dynamic laser lightscattering detector (Zetasizer Nano ZS, Malvern Instruments, Germany).

Preparation of the Bioactive Composition

Biotinylated EpCAM Antibody was prepared by the following steps:

(1) The anti-EpCAM monoclonal antibody (OC98-1 or EpAb4-1) was generatedby method described by Chen et al (Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007;14:404-11).(2) The antibody in step (1) was dissolved in a buffer solutioncontaining 10 mM of PBS and 150 mM of NaCl, with a pH about 7.2. Theconcentration of the antibody buffer solution was about 0.65 mg/mL,determined by Nanodrop 1000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, USA).(3) The antibody solution in step (2) was mixed with 10 mM of SulfoNHS-LC-Biotin (with a molar ratio of 1 to 10) and dissolved in Milli-Qwater (Milli-Q RO system, USA) at room temperature for 30 min. Excessbiotin was removed by dialysis in phosphate buffered saline at 4° C. for24 h, with a buffer change every 12 h.(4) The ratio of biotin and antibody in the biotinylated anti-EpCAMantibody (bOC98-1 or bEpAb4-1) was 1.5 to 1, determined by the HABAassay using a biotin quantitation kit (Pierce, USA).

Alternatively, commercially available biotinylated goat anti-humananti-EpCAM antibody from R and D Systems (Minneapolis, Minn.) could beused.

Preparation of Solid Substrates of the Present Invention

Glass substrate (such as microscope coverslips from Deckglaser, Germany)were cleaned with 10% DECON 90 (Decon Laboratories Limited, England),rinsed with Milli-Q water, dried under nitrogen gas, and exposed tooxygen plasma in a plasma cleaner (Harrick Plasma, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A.)at 100 mtorr for 10 min. Prior to each use, the glass substrate wasrinsed with ethanol and dried under nitrogen gas.

Silicon oxide based solid substrates (e.g. silicon wafer or glasscoverslips) were cleaned with piranha solution (70% sulfuric acid and30% hydrogen peroxide (v/v)) at 120° C. for 40 min, subsequently washedwith distilled water and rinsed with acetone. The solid substrates weredried under a stream of nitrogen and treated with a plasma cleaner.

For the vapor phase silanization reaction, clean silicon oxidesubstrates and a Petri-dish containing 150 uL of3-(aminopropyl)-triethoxysilane (Sigma, USA) were placed in a desiccator(Wheaton dry-seal desiccator, 100 nm) under reduced pressure at ˜0.3Torr for 16 h. The substrates were cleaned by acetone and dried undernitrogen stream.

Construction of the SLB Surface Coating on a Solid Substrate

0.25 mg/ml of POPC/b-PE vesicle solution from paragraph [0084] was addedto the cleaned solid substrate to form a SLB coated solid substrate.This was followed by an extensive rinse with a phosphate buffercontaining 10 mM PBS and 150 mM NaCl (pH=7.2) to remove excess POPC/b-PEvesicles. Biotin was the functional group in the SLB which binds withthe functional group (streptavidin) in the linker composition

0.1 mg/mL of streptavidin (SA) solution (commercially available fromPierce Biotechnology. Rockford, Ill., USA) was added to the SLB coatedsolid substrate and incubated for 1 hour, followed with a PBS bufferrinse to remove excess SA.

About 0.05 mg/mL of b-Anti-EpCAM solution was added to the SA-SLB coatedsolid substrate to form the surface coating of the present invention.

Construction of the PEG Surface Coating on a Solid Substrate

The biotinylated PEG silane solution (Si-bPEGs) was added to the cleanglass substrate and incubated for 1 hour to form a Si-bPEG nonfoulingcomposition on the glass substrate, followed by an ethanol rinse toremove excess Si-bPEGs. Silane was the surface linker and the biotin wasthe functional group that bind with the functional group (SA) in thelinker composition.

0.1 mg/mL of SA solution was added to the Si-bPEGs coated solidsubstrate and incubated for 1 hour, followed by a PBS buffer rinse toremove excess SA.

0.05 mg/mL of b-Anti-EpCAM solution was added and bound with SA-Si-bPEGssurface coating, followed by PBS buffer rinse to remove excessb-Anti-EpCAM.

Construction of the PEM Surface Coating on a Solid Substrate

Physical deposition of PEM films was performed by batch and staticconditions as follows: initially, all polypeptides were dissolved in 10mM Tris-HCl buffer with 0.15 M NaCl, pH 7.4. Solid substrates were thenimmersed in PLL (MW 15000-30000; Sigma, St Louis, Mo.) solution (1mg/mL) for 10 min at room temperature, followed by rinsing with 1 mL ofTris-HCl buffer for 1 min. To couple PLGA, the PLL-coated slide wassubsequently immersed in the PLGA solution (MW 3000-15000, Sigma, StLouis, Mo., 1 mg/mL) for 10 min, followed by rinsing with 1 mL ofTris-HCl buffer for 1 min. Lastly, substrates were cleaned with freshPBS to remove uncoupled polypeptides. The resulting c-(PLL/PLGA)i, wherei was denoted as the number of polyelectrolyte pairs generated byrepeating the above steps: i) 0.5 was referred to c-PLL only, i) 1 wasreferred to c-(PLUPLGA)1, and the like.

QCM-D Characterization of the SLB Surface Coating

The construction of the surface coating was monitored by quartz crystalmicrobalance with dissipation (QCM-D). The QCM-D response in FIG. 11shows the construction of the surface coating on a SiO₂-pretreatedquartz crystal. First, 0.25 mg/mL of POPC/b-PE vesicle mixture (inphosphate buffer) was dispensed into the QCM chamber at point (I). Thenormalized frequency change F and dissipation shift D were 26.0±0.7 Hzand 0.19±0.03×10-6 respectively, which are the characteristics of ahighly uniformed lipid bilayer. After two buffer washes (denoted as *),0.1 mg/mL of SA solution was dispensed at point II. • SA binding wassaturated at F=52.8±5.4 Hz and D=3.84±0.54×10-6. At point (III), 0.025mg/mL of OC98-1 antibody solution was dispensed into the QCM chamber andthere was no frequency or dissipation change. This shows there was nointeraction between the OC98-1 antibody and the SA-lipid bilayersurface. In contrast, adding biotinylated antibody solution (bOC98-1 orbEpAb4-1) at point (IV) resulted in frequency and dissipation change,with equilibrated shifts of F=39.4±6.8 Hz and D=1.63±0.28×10-6. Thisdemonstrates the binding of biotinylated antibody to SA-lipid bilayersurface.

The characteristics of the SLB nonfouling composition on the surfacecoating were examined using QCM-D (FIG. 12). Bovine serum albumin (BSA,commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. USA) was added to the surfacecoating and there was a sudden change in frequency and dissipation, withequilibrated shifts of F=6.9 Hz and D=3.35×10-6. This indicates animmediate BSA adsorption. Three buffer rinses (*) caused an increase infrequency and a decrease in dissipation, with saturated shifts of F=6.1Hz and D=3.16×10-6. This indicates the adsorbed BSA can be easilyremoved from the surface coating and thus, a very weak interactionbetween BSA and SLB.

Example 2: Preparation of the Microfluidic Chip

The microfluidic chip can be prepared by the following steps:

1. A commercial CO₂ laser scriber (Helix 24, Epilog, USA) was used toengrave the microtrenches to form microstructures on the PMMA substrate.2. The PMMA substrate, glass substrate and nuts were cleaned with MeOH,detergent and water, followed by 10 min sonication. The nuts and thesolid substrates were dried by nitrogen gas and baked for 10 min at 60°C.3. The PMMA substrate was bonded with nuts by chloroform treatment.4. PMMA substrate and the glass slide were joined together using anadhesive (e.g. 3M doubled sided tape from 3M, USA).

Example 3: CTCs Binding to the Anti-EnCAM Functionalized SLB SurfaceCoating

Eight blood samples were used to determine the CTC capture rate of theAnti-EpCAM functionalized SLB surface coating in a microfluidic chip inExample 2. Each blood sample contained 2 ml of blood from a stage IVcolon cancer patient and the sample was introduced to the sealed channelof the microfluidic chip at 0.5 ml/hr, controlled by a syringe pump.Subsequently, the sealed channel in the microfluidic chip was rinsedwith 0.5 ml of PBS buffer at the flow rate of 1 ml/h, followed by insitu immunostaining.

The number of CTCs captured per ml of blood for these 8 samples were 26,34, 36, 39, 47, 67 79, and 99, 25% of the blood samples had 79 or higherCTC count per ml of testing sample and the median CTC count was 43 perml of testing sample. There was minimal binding of the non-specificcells and proteins after the buffer rinse.

As a comparison, the CTC count for the FDA approved Veridex CellSearchis as follows: 25% of the samples had 3 or more CTCs per 7.5 ml oftesting sample and the median CTC counts was 0.

The anti-EpCAM functionalized SLB surface was incubated with 150 uL ofHCT116 cancer cell spiked human blood (with HCT116 cancer cell densityof approximately 10 to 100 per 100 μL of blood), followed by a bufferrinse to remove non-specific cells. FIG. 13 shows the surface coatingbefore and after the buffer rinse. Prior to the buffer rinse, thesurface coating was covered with non-specific cells (upper left) andfour HCT116 cancer cells (lower left). After the buffer rinse, almostall of the non-specific cells were removed (upper right) but the fourHCT116 cancer cell (lower right) remained on the surface coating.

The results show the surface coating of the present invention iseffective in capturing CTCs and releasing the non-specific cells.

Example 4: Comparison of Capture Efficiency and Nonfouling Property ofVarious Surface Conditions

The capture rate of HCT116 cancer cells (biological substance) and thenonfouling property of six different surface conditions are illustratedin FIG. 14A.

The results show that the surface coatings of the present invention(lipid/SA/b-anti-EpCAM and PEG(15 mM)/SA/b-anti-EpCAM) are moreeffective in capturing the biological substance. There is less bindingof the non-specific cells (white blood cells or WBC) on the surfacecoatings of the present invention compare to a surface coating without anonfouling composition (glass only).

FIG. 14B shows the non-specific blood cell binding of the followingsurfaces: (A) Glass only; (B) biotinylated SLB (b-SLB), (C) Streptavidinconjugated-bSLB, and (D) OC98-1-conjugated bSLB. These surfaces wereincubated with diluted human blood from healthy donor (1 uL of blood in100 uL PBS buffer) for 4 hours, followed by a PBS buffer rinse. Images(E) to (H) are the after rinse images which correspond to the surfacecoatings in (A) to (D). The results show that after a buffer rinse,there is less non-specific blood cell on the surface coatings with areleasable composition (i.e. SLB) compare to the surface coating withouta releasable composition (i.e. glass only).

Example 5: Purification by Flow

The differentiated flow shear could selectively “flush” out thenon-specific cells based on the affinity of these cells to thenonfouling composition, while the biological substance remains on thesurface coating.

In this study, the surface coating comprised a SLB, a linker compositionand fibronectin as the bioactive composition. FIG. 15A shows fibroblast3T3 (green) and colon cancer cell line HCT116 (red) were incubated onthe surface coating for 4 h. The surface coating was rinsed with abuffer solution, which has a shear stress of 3 dyne/cm².

The HCT 116 cells (red) were flushed away from the surface coatingwithin 5 min of the buffer rinse, as shown in FIG. 15B. The fibroblast3T3 cells (green) remained on the surface coating after 30 min of bufferrinse, as shown in FIG. 15C, due to its high affinity to fibronectin.

The result shows a shear stress about 3 dyne/cm² is sufficient to removethe non-specific cells from the releasable composition.

FIG. 16 summarizes the respective shear stress and flushing time for theHCT116 and NIH-3T3 cell populations (non-specific cells). To removeHCT116 cells from the releasable compostion of the surface coating, theshear stress is about 3 to about 4.5 dyne/cm². To remove NIH-3T3 cellsfrom the releasable composition of the surface coating, the shear stressis about 8.5 to about 12 dyne/cm² (N/N0 is the percentage of the cellsremains attached to the surface coating using various shear stresses. Nis the final cell number and NO is the initial cell number.)

Example 6: Release of CTCs from the Surface Coating

The captured HCT116 cancer cells on the surface coating in Example 3were released by introducing air bubbles. FIG. 17 shows HCT116 cells inthe red circle were removed from the surface coating within 3 seconds ofintroducing air bubbles.

Example 7: Culture of Released CTCs from the Surface Coating

The captured CTCs were incubated with 5 mM of EDTA at 37° C. for 5 to 10min and released by flowing a culture medium into the sealed channel ofthe microfluidic chip. A total of 18 colo205 cells were released fromthis procedure. The released colo205 cells, together with aserum-containing culture medium and antibiotics(penicillin+streptomycin+gentamicin), were placed into a 48-well tissuecultured polystyrene plate for cultivation.

FIGS. 18 A-18C show a portion of 18 colo205 cells on day 1, on day 10and day 14 respectively. This study demonstrates the released colo205cells retained their viability for subsequent cell culture.

Example 8: Capture CTCs Through a CTC Filtration Device

Any membranes, tubes, capillaries, beads, nanoparticles or channels canbe coated with the surface coating of the present invention. FIG. 19illustrates schematically a filtration device, wherein the filtrationfilter is coated with the surface coating of the present invention. Thefilter could accommodate high volume blood flow and capture a biologicalsubstance for a diagnostic or therapeutic purpose. To access thepatient's blood or body fluid, a catheter can be inserted into thepatient's vein or fistula and the patient's blood flows through the CTCfiltration device, wherein the surface coating on the filters capturesthe CTCs. The filtered blood flows back to the patient.

Example 9: Capture CTCs Through a Biotinylated EPAb4-1 Antibody

The binding specificity of biotinylated OC9801 antibody, biotinylatedEpAb4-1 antibody and biotinylated EpCam antibody (commercially availablefrom R&D system, USA) were examined using the HCT116 (colorectal) CTCsand SAS (tongue) CTCs.

The CTCs were spiked in a buffer solution (about 10⁵ CTCs/ml). TheCTC-spiked buffer solution was introduced to the surface coatings withthe following bioactive composition: biotinylated OC9801 antibody,biotinylated EpAb4-1 antibody, biotinylated EpCam antibody and IgGantibody.

The CTC binding specificy of the antibodies was determined bycolorimetric method, by measuring the absorption optical density at 490nm. FIG. 20 shows biotinylated EpAb 4-1 is effective in capturing HCT116CTCs and SAS CTCs.

1.-63. (canceled)
 64. A microfluidic chip for selectively enriching rarecells, comprising: a first solid substrate and a second solid substrate,wherein at least one of the first and second solid substrates comprise aseries of microstructures configured to interact with cells, wherein theseries of microstructures are perpendicular to a flow direction of themicrofluidic chip, and wherein the first and second solid substrates areconfigured to be bound parallel to one another; and a surface coatingfor capturing the rare cells, wherein the surface coating comprises anon-fouling composition and a bioactive composition which selectivelybinds to the rare cells, wherein the non-fouling composition of thesurface coating is non-covalently associated with the bioactivecomposition, wherein at least one of the first and second solidsubstrates comprise the surface coating.
 65. The microfluidic chip ofclaim 64, wherein the microstructures are arranged in a linear patternsuch that microstructures in a first pair of adjacent rows have adistance separating the adjacent rows, thereby forming a first gap, andwherein said first gap is not in line with a second gap formed by asecond pair of adjacent rows, wherein said first gap and second gap arein adjacent columns.
 66. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, wherein thebioactive composition comprises an antibody.
 67. The microfluidic chipof claim 66, wherein the antibody is a biotinylated EpCAM antibody. 68.The microfluidic chip of claim 64, wherein the non-fouling compositioncomprises a lipid layer.
 69. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, whereinthe two solid substrates comprise a glass substrate and a plasticsubstrate.
 70. The microfluidic chip of claim 69, wherein the glasssubstrate is located below the plastic substrate in a workingconfiguration.
 71. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, wherein the firstsolid substrate comprises the series of microstructures, and wherein thefirst solid substrate is located above the second solid substrate in aworking configuration.
 72. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, furthercomprising an adhesive for bonding the first solid substrate to thesecond solid substrate.
 73. The microfluidic chip of claim 72, whereinthe adhesive comprises an inner hollow opening in a form of a channel.74. The microfluidic chip of claim 73, wherein the channel is configuredto encompass the series of microstructures.
 75. The microfluidic chip ofclaim 73, wherein the channel of the adhesive determines a path for therare cells to travel through for the microfluidic chip.
 76. Themicrofluidic chip of claim 72, wherein a thickness of the adhesivedetermines a height of a channel of the microfluidic chip.
 77. Themicrofluidic chip of claim 64, wherein the binding moiety comprises anantibody, and the antibody comprises a heavy chain and a light chainthat binds EpCAM, wherein (a) the heavy chain comprises CDR1, CDR2, andCDR3 of SEQ ID No: 1, and (b) the light chain comprises CDR1, CDR2, andCDR3 of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 78. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, furthercomprising a syringe pump wherein the syringe pump is configured toapply buffer at a flow rate configured to release non-specific cellsfrom the non-fouling layer without releasing cells selectively bound tothe bioactive composition.
 79. The microfluidic chip of claim 64,further comprising a syringe pump configured to aid rinsing themicrofluidic chip with a buffer at a shear force of about 2.5 to about10 dyne/cm².
 80. The microfluidic chip of claim 64, wherein thenon-fouling composition is coupled to each of the first and second solidsubstrates by a surface linker.
 81. The microfluidic chip in accordancewith claim 64, wherein the surface coating is attached to the solidsubstrate by one of the following non-covalent interactions: hydrogenbonding, electrostatic interaction, hydrophilic-hydrophilic interaction,polar-polar interaction, magnetic force, or a combination thereof. 82.The microfluidic chip of claim 64, wherein the non-fouling compositionis configured to completely coat each of the first and second solidsubstrates.
 83. A method for releasing a cell attached to a surface, themethod comprising: flowing a bubble over a surface comprising anon-fouling layer comprising a lipid, wherein the non-fouling layer iscoupled to a binding moiety, and wherein the bubble releases the cellfrom the surface.